Method and Methodology

Name: Baraiya Bhavna P.

Roll No: 03

Sem: 02

Paper: Cultural Studies

Topic: Method and Methodology

Method

And

Methodology

        Method is the technique employed by the researcher to frame questions, collect and organize data. Thus ‘method’ refers to the actual fieldwork, questionnaires, databases, identifying sources.

           Methodology refers to the political position and the interpretive strategies used by the researcher. This refers to the epistemological approach, and concerns the philosophical, political approach of the researcher; where she scrutinizes her own interpret the data collected.

For example:

                     If you are studying representations of women in popular Hindi films, the first step in method would be…

·       To organize the questions to be asked

·       To take decisions about the people to interview (age group, class composition, language)

·       To prepare the questions

·       To conduct the interview

 The methodology would include

·       Identifying your own ideology (Marxist, feminist)

·       Reflecting on your experiences before framing the questions

·       Interpreting the data collected based on your assumptions

              Cultural Studies, as we know, is about power and studies how power informs all acts of cultural production and meaning generation. It is therefore important to realize the positions the researcher and object occupy and the power relations between them.

              Cultural Studies has a set of warnings that we need to keep in mind in any analysis of culture:

·       What gives us (academics, researchers) the authority to use people as resource material to study their culture?

·       What is the relationship between knower (researcher) and the known (object of the study)?

·       What is the location from which the researcher is asking the question the analysis?

In most cases of rigorous Cultural Studies, the researcher isolates her own locations and politics while analyzing culture. This means, the researcher has to be conscious of the ‘vantage point’ from which she is making the observations and interpretations. This is termed ‘reflexivity’ in social and critical theory, where the researcher reflects on her own position.

If for instance…,

                     I am exploring the culture of cyber technology in India, I need to identify my own position with regard to the ‘subject’ I am observing upper-caste, internally diasporic, metropolitan, male, middle-career academic with the humanities at an elite university with a fairly decent infrastructure. From this position and informed by the politics of my location, I observe cybercafés, rural e-governance and a digital divide from my friends in First World universities, but who feels that the younger generation uses technology much better than I ever can! This reflexivity opens up my observation and agenda. How do I see myself as a knowledge-producer, critic or commentator in relation to and with the subjects I study?  Does being an academic lend more authority’ to what I say or ask? What is the validity of my knowledge or observation? This set of questions is central to the politics of research itself.

                Cultural Studies in the Euro-American contexts, especially those from a feminist perspective, often connects empirical data and theorizing about this data with a wider feminist politics in the public realm. Thus, feminist studies of film audiences link the representation of women in film media with larger issues of gender inequality in society. This is crucial because one of the basic assumptions of Cultural Studies is that cultural artifacts can not be studied independent of the social and material contexts. Representations of women in films therefore are located in actual contexts of gender oppression, domestic violence, patriarchal family structures and economic inequalities of the genders.

      Two factors have to be kept in mind:

·       The study should draw upon as large a number of ‘sources’ for it to have any value.

·       It should be, if possible, spread out over a period of time and contexts, if we need to make a generalized statement about cultural practices.

  Commentators like John Fiske (1996) have argued that the old-fashioned mode of ethnography, where the researcher immerses’ her in the culture being studied is unnecessary because we mostly study our own cultures now. Further Culture Studies is more interested in the way meanings are made and t5he discourses within these are made. This involves study of the processes of representation and ‘texts, seeing these as instrumental in the construction of identity. That is, Cultural Studies investigates, intensively, the production of meaning rather than involving itself in extended observation. The ides is not to merely accumulate data- though such descriptions are valuable but to ask question of epistemology and politics of the data that has been produced.

       The recording of experience is, as we shall see, the cornerstone of all Cultural Studies. Following Ann Gray (2003) three propositions can be set out here:

·       Identifying what is knowable

·       Identifying and acknowledge the relationship of the knower and the known

·       What is the procedure for ‘knowing’?

This requires formulating the structure of the case study’. The ‘case study’ is a limited bounded system which is under observation of particular phenomena.

The examples of archetypes in literature

Name: Baraiya Bhavna P.

Roll No: 03

Sem: 02

Paper: Literary theory and criticism

Topic: The examples of archetypes in literature  

   The examples of

Archetypes

in literature

            Archetypes fall into two major categories: characters, situations/symbols. It is easiest to understand them with the help of examples. Listed below are some of the most common archetypes in each category.

The hero:

The courageous figure, the one who’s always running in the saving the day. Example: Dartagnon from Alexander Dumas’s “The Three Musketeers”. (Hamlet, Macbeth, Tom Jones, Moll...)

The outcast:

The outcast is just that. He or She has been cast out of society or has left it on a voluntary basis. The outcast figure can oftentimes also be considered as a Christ figure. Example: Simon from William Golding’s “The lord of the Flies”. (Pandavas, Ram-Sita-Laxman, Sugreve, Duke, Orlando, Rosalind in As You like It, tramps in Godot…)

The scapegoat –

The scapegoat figure is the one who gets blamed for everything. Regardless of whether he or she is actually at fault. Example: Snowball from George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”. [Tom Jones, Darcy in pride and prejudice (breaking of Lizzy’s sis’s relationship elopement) Technology in Brave New World, Tess for death of prince, giving birth to sorrow.]

The star-crossed lovers –

This is the young couple joined by love but unexpectedly parted by fate. Example: Romeo and Juliet from William Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet”. [Tess and Angel, Heer-Ranjha, Sheeri-Farhad …]

The shrew –

This is that nagging, bothersome wife always battering her husband with verbal abuse. Example: Zeena from Edith Wharton’s “Ethan Frome”. [Katherine in Taming of Shrew. Paul’s mother in Sons and Lovers, Lizzy’s mother in pride and prejudice...]

Female Fatale:

 A female character type who brings upon catastrophic and disastrous events. Eve from the story of Genesis or Pandora from Greek mythology is two such figures. Sita, Draupadi or Suparnakha.

The journey:

 A narrative archetype where the protagonist must overcome a series of obstacle before reaching his or her goal. The quintessential journey archetype in Western culture is arguably Homer’s Odyssey.

Situations/symbols:

Archetypal symbols vary more than archetype narratives or character types. But any symbol with deep roots in a culture’s mythology. Such as the forbidden fruit of Genesis or even the poison apple in Snow White. Is an example of a symbol that resonates to archetypal criticism?

The task –

 A situation in which a character, or a group of characters, is driven to complete some duty of monstrous proportion. Example: Frodo’s task to keep the ring safe in J.R.R. Tolkien’s “The Lord of Rings” trilogy. (Athurian Legends bring Helen back to Troy. Kurukshetra’s battle for Arjuna and Savitri.)

The Quest:

 Here, the characters are searching for something, whether consciously or unconsciously. Their actions, thoughts and feelings center on the goal of completing this quest. Example: Christian’s quest for salvation in John Bunyan’s “The pilgrim’s progress”. (Search for Holy Grail. Search for Sita, Nala-Damayanti. Savitri for Satyakam’s life. Shakuntala in Kalidas, Don Quixote. Jude…)

The loss of innocence:

 This is, as the name implies a loss of innocence through sexual experience, violence, or any other Tennessee William’s “Orpheus Desending”. [Moll. Tess. Tom. Jude…]

Water:

 Water is symbol of life, cleansing, and rebirth. It is a strong life force and is often depicted as living reasoning force.

Water – Birth-rebirth-resurrection: creation: purification and redemption: fertility and growth. Sea/ocean: the mother of all life: spiritual mystery: death and/or rebirth: timelessness and eternity.

Rivers:

Death and rebirth (baptism): the flowing of time into eternity: transitional phases of the life cycle. Example: Edna learns to swim in Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening”. [Water movie and novel by Bapsi Sidwa. Death by water. Polluted River in Waste Land]

Sun (fire and sky are closely related):

Creative energy; thinking, enlightenment, wisdom, spiritual vision.

Rising Sun:

Birth, creation, enlightenment

Setting Sun:

 Death

Colors:

Red: blood, sacrifice, passion; disorder.

Green:  growth, hope, fertility.

Blue: highly positive, secure; tranquil; spiritual purity.

Black: darkness, chaos, mystery, the unknown, death, wisdom, evil, melancholy.

White: light, purity, innocence, timelessness; [negative: death, terror, supernatural]

Yellow: enlightenment, wisdom.

Serpent (snake, worm):

 Symbol of energy and pure force (libido): evil, corruption, sensuality, destruction.

Numbers:

3 – Light, spiritual awareness, unity (the Holy Trinity); male principle.

4 – Associated with the circle, life cycle, four seasons; earth, nature, elements.

7 – the most potent of all symbolic numbers signifying the union of three and four , the completion of a cycle, perfect order, perfect number; religious symbol.

Wise old Man:

Savior, Redeemer, guru, representing knowledge, reflection, insight, wisdom, intuition, and morality.

Garden:

Paradise, innocence, unspoiled beauty.

Tree:

Denotes life of the cosmos; growth; proliferation; symbol of immorality; phallic symbol. Desert: All cultures believe the Cosmos was brought into existence by some Supernatural Being (or beings)

Seasons:

Spring - rebirth; genre/comedy.

Summer – life; genre/ romance,

Fall- death/dying; genre/tragedy,

Winter- without life/death; genre/irony.

(I f winter has come, can spring be far behind?)

(April is the cruelest month …)

The great fish:

Divine creation/ life. (Matsayavatar)

Freud’s symbolism/archetypes:

Concave images (ponds, flowers, cups, vases, hollows): female or womb symbols.

Phallic symbols (towers, mountain peaks, snakes, knives, swords, etc.) male symbols.

Dancing, riding, or flying: symbols of sexual pleasure.

The theme of Sense and Sensibility

Name: Baraiya Bhavna P.

Poll No: 3

Subject: Romantic Literature

Topic: The theme of Sense and Sensibility

Sem: 2

Year: 2012-13









                                            The theme of
                            Sense and Sensibility







About novelist :-

                           The novel sense and sensibility written by female writer Jane Austin . She is a realist who draws her materials from actual life, as she sees it. There is nothing fantastic or fanciful as far she depicts the social life of her time.
                            Jane Austen, the daughter of a Hampshire clergyman, was born at Steventon. She was educated at home; her father was a man of good taste in the choice of reading material , and Jane’s education was conducted on sound lines. Her life was unexciting , being little more than a series of pilgrimages to different places of residence , including the fashionable resort of Bath (1801) . On the death of the rector his wife and two daughters removed to the neighbourhood of Southampton, where the majority of Jane Austen’s novels were written. Her first published works were issued anonymously, and she died in middle age, before her merits had received anything like adequate recognition. 


Matrimony 

                    ( her principal theme)
                    The principal theme of her novels is her matrimony. Generally the heroin after few false starts, meets the right man, and a series of misunderstandings and frustration occurs to delay but never to prevent their union.

                        The theme of the novel is very simple. the Dashwood lives in Norland Park, occupied by Mrs. Dashwood and her three daughters. John Dashwood, is stepson of Mrs. Dashwood and he has in heritages her properties. While dying he requests him to look after his stepmother and stepsister. But Fanny, wife of John , insults her stepmother - in - law so that they shift to Norland Park to Burden Cottage. During Dashwood shift there Elinor the eldest daughter of Dashwood family falls in love with Edward. 


                     The Marianne - second daughter fall in love with willoughby. Willoughby leaves her for London. But both sisters go to London to search him and they live at house of Mrs. Jenning’s home - mother -in-law of Willoughby. But then Marianne become unhappy as she comes to that Willoughby is married to Mrs. Grey. Then Elinor also comes to know that Edward is engaged to Lucy. Now both the sisters leaves for Barton Cottage. The Dashwood an unexpected news that Lucy is married to Robert Ferrars - elder brother of Edward Ferrars. Edward himself goes to Barton Cottage to propose Elinor. She gladly accept offers of him. Marianne married to Brandon. Thus novel ended happily and we can see here poetic justice in the end of the novel Sense and Sensibility.

Money/Inheritance

                      Laws surrounding inheritance are what put the Dashwood women in limbo at the beginning of the novel; and their lack of money, compounded with their inability to work, means that they cannot ease their situation, except through marrying well. Money also dictates the eligibility of Elinor and Marianne, as women with larger dowries are of course seen as better prospects for marriage.

Gender

                          There are very definite gender limitations involved in the society Austen describes; women cannot own property, are expected to stay in the home, marry, and be polite and good company. Men can decide whether or not to pursue a career if they have enough money, and have more latitude within society in regards to their behavior and life choices. Gender dictates acceptable roles and behavior, and even in the world of the novel, there is little room to deviate.

Expectations vs. reality

                       This is an especially important theme with regard to Marianne and her mother, whose romantic characters lead them to expect greater drama or trauma than actually appears. But reality always tends to subvert expectations, whether in life or in art, as accidents and unexpected twists and turns happen to everyone.

Discretion

                   Of the utmost importance in polite society, where it is not to one's advantage to let people know all that you think and feel. Marianne's lack of discretion leads to a great deal of gossip and a very public snubbing by Willoughby; lack of discretion in many others indicates poor manners and a lack of refinement.

Appearance vs. reality

                    Pertains to character especially, as many characters in the novel present themselves as one thing, and end up being another. Willoughby is the prime example of this, as he seems romantic, open, and genuine, but ends up exposing himself as vain, idle, and cruel. Also pertains to Lucy Steele, who ends up conniving, despite her innocent appearance.

Expectation and disappointment
                        
                           Throughout the novel, many characters develop expectations based on sparse evidence or faulty perceptions; this, of course, leads to disappointment as reality proves very different. Joyful expectations are often dashed by harsher turns of events, as Marianne is extremely disappointed by her expectation of being married to Willoughby, and is pushed away.

Self-sacrifice and selfishness

                        Elinor especially is a model of self-sacrifice, deciding to go to London for her sister's happiness, and trying her best to be civil to everyone to make up for Marianne's uncivil behavior. Marianne is the opposite, caring only for herself and her feelings; she needs Elinor's help and goodwill to get by, but needs to learn how to be giving toward others in order to become her own, independent person.

Hypocrisy
                         A vast number of characters in the novel embody this trait to varying degrees; John and Fanny, Lady Middleton, the Steele girls, Mrs. Ferrars, and Robert, among others, tend toward hypocritical displays of self-serving flattery, vanity, and professing opinions they do not believe in for self-gain or to get ahead with others. Unfortunately, none of these characters is taught any better in the course of the novel, as hypocrisy is an unavoidable part of human nature, and almost a part of polite society as well.

The development of poetry in the Victorian age

Name: Baraiya Bhavna P.

Roll No: 03

Paper: The Victorian Literature

Topic: Development of Poetry in the               Victorian age

SEM: 02       

              

               The Development

                      Of Poetry

                In The Victorian Age

         

                    The Victorian epoch was exceedingly productive of literary work of a high quality, but, except in the novel, the amount of actual innovation is by no mean great. Writers were as a rule content to work upon formal models, and the improvements they did achieve were often dubious and unimportant.

The lyrical output:

                 The lyrical output is very large and varied, as a glance through the works of the poets already mentioned will show. In form there is little of fresh interest. Tennyson was content to follow the methods of Keats, though Browning’s complicated forms and Swinburne’s long musical lines were more freely used by them than by any previous writers.

Descriptive And Narrative Poetry:

              In descriptive and narrative poetry there is a greater advance to chronicle. In subject –for example,

In the poems of Browning and Morris-there is great variety, embracing many climes and periods; in method there is much diversity, ranging from the cultured elegance of Tennyson’s English landscapes to the bold impressionism of the poems of Whitman. The pre-Raphaelite school, also united several features which had not been seen before in combination. These were a fondness for medieval themes treated in an unconventional manner, a richly coloured pictorial effect, and a studied and melodious simplicity. The works of Rosseetti, Morris, and Swinburne provide many examples of this development of poetry. On the whole we can say that Victorians were strongest on the descriptive side of poetry, which agreed with the more meditative habits of the period, as contrasted with the warmer and more lyrical emotions of the previous age.

                                   There were many attempts at purely narrative poetry, with interesting results. Tennyson thought of reviving the epic, but in him the epical impulse was not sufficiently strong, and his great narrative poem was produced as smaller fragments which he called idylls. Browning’s Ring and the Book is curious, for it can be called a psychological epic-a narrative in which emotion removes action from the chief place. In this class of poetry The Earthly Paradise of William Morris is a return to the old romantic tale as we find it in the works of Chaucer.

Style:

                        In the case of poetry the more ornate style was represented in Tennyson, who developed artistic schemes of vowel music, alliteration, and other devices in a manner quite unprecedented. The Pre-Raphaelites carried the method still further. In diction they were simpler than Tennyson, but their vocabulary was more archaic and their mass of detail more highly coloured. The style of Browning was to certain extent a protest against this aureate diction. He substituted for it simplicity and a heady speed, especially in his earlier lyrics; his more mature obscurity was merely an effect of his eager imagination and reckless impetuosity. Matthew Arnold, in addition, was too classical in style to care for overdeveloped picturesqueness, and wrote with a studied simplicity. On the whole, however, we can say that the average poetical style of this period, as a natural reaction against the simpler mathods of the period immediately preceding, was ornate rather than simple.   

Conclusion:

                             The major poets of the Victorian era are Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) and Robert Browning (1812-1889). Both are prolific and varied, and their work defies easy classification.

                            Tennyson makes extensive use of classical myth and Arthurian legend, and has been praised for the beautiful and musical qualities of his writing.

                            Browning's chief interest is in people; he uses blank verse in writing dramatic monologues in which the speaker achieves a kind of self-portraiture: his subjects are both historical individuals (Fra Lippo Lippi, Andrea del Sarto) and representative types or caricatures (Mr. Sludge the Medium).

                    Other Victorian poets of note include Browning's wife, Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) and Christina Rossetti (1830-1894). Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) is notable for his use of what he calls “sprung rhythm”; as in Old English verse syllables are not counted, but there is a pattern of stresses. Hopkins' work was not well-known until very long after his death.